Your Guide to Commonly Used Marketing Research Terms

A

A priori segmentation

Market segmentation which is not empirically based. It involves segmenting markets on the basis of assumptions, custom or hunches.

A.C. Nielsen Retail Index

Audit of household items, food, personal products etc., at the retail level.

AAU (attitude, awareness and usage) study

A type of tracking study that monitors changes in consumer attitudes, awareness and usage levels for a product category or specific brand.

ACASI (audio computer-aided self-administered interviewing)

Self-administered surveying in which the respondent listens to the questions over headphones. Responses are usually registered using a computer-based questionnaire. If responses are recorded on paper it is known as audio SAQ.

Account Manager/Executive

Generally the person in any company responsible for selling or promoting the services which the company has to offer. In marketing research, this is typically the person at the research company who oversees the entire research process to deliver a project which meets the client's expectations. This person would normally be the client's key contact.

Accuracy

The degree of conformity of a sample statistic to the population.

ACORN

A classification of residential neighborhoods; a marketing segmentation system that enables consumers to be classified according to the type of area they live.

ACR

Association for Consumer Research

Action devices

Items and techniques used to encourage positive response, e.g. tokens, stickers.

Active buyer

Customer whose latest purchase was made within the last 12 months.

Ad concept testing

Testing used to determine the target audience reaction to alternative advertising approaches or preliminary ad concepts.

Ad hoc surveys

Questionnaires administered to the target audience with no prior contact by the researcher.

Ad positioning statement tests

Testing to determine reactions of the target audience to positioning statements that are being considered for use in advertisements.

Ad tracking research

Periodic measurements of the impact of advertisements over time.

Address coding guide (CG)

List of beginning and ending house numbers, ZIP codes and other geographic codes for all city delivery service and streets served by 31,540 post offices located in 6,601 ZIP codes.

ADI (Area of Dominant Influence)

A television market, as defined by Arbitron, a firm which measures TV audiences. Each ADI is assigned Arbitron's three-digit numeric code.

Affective component of attitudes

An individual's emotional reactions about an object.

After-only with control group

True experimental design involving the random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups but no pre-measurement of the dependent variable.

AID (automatic interaction detector)

A method of multivariate analysis often used in market segmentation studies.

Aided Recall/Awareness

A technique used to aid memory, something that stimulates remembering, i.e., picture, words. Reading or showing the respondent the possible answers to a specific question.

Alert

Any means (i.e., telephone, fax, mail) of informing a Data Collection Company of the study authorization to include the starting date, delivery of materials, quota, timing, cost, etc.

Allowable sampling error

The amount of sampling error the researcher is willing to accept.

Alternative hypothesis

What is believed to be true if the null hypothesis is false. Also known as the research hypothesis.

AMA

American Marketing Association

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

A method of analysis for determining the level of statistical significance of differences among the means of two or more variables.

Analyst

The person most responsible for reviewing, analyzing and summarizing the data from a research project.

Analyze/Analysis

To review information gained from the responses of questionnaires completed for a study; to arrive at conclusions and to make the necessary decisions and recommendations on the subject being studied.

Answer Cards

See Exhibit Cards

Anthropomorphic

A research technique in which participants describe a product, service or brand in terms of a human being with personality traits so that the participants' feelings about the object/brand can be determined.

APA

American Psychological Association

Applied research

Any research which is used to answer a specific question, determine why something failed or succeeded, solve a specific, pragmatic problem, or to gain better understanding.

Area samples

Samples which include geographic areas as part of the sample design.

ARF

Advertising Research Foundation

ASA

American Statistical Association

ASCII (American standard code of information interchange)

Widely used code for transmission of data from one database to another.

Asterisk bills

State laws which require telephone companies to advise subscribers that they can have an asterisk placed in front of their names if they do not want to receive telemarketing or telephone interviewing calls.

At-home testing

A product sample is provided for participants to use at home. The reaction to the product is determined in a follow-up telephone survey, written survey or in a group session.

Attempt

Every contact with a potential respondent; whether, or not, anyone is actually reached and whether, or not, a completed interview results.

Attitude Research

A survey conducted to obtain information on how people feel about certain products, ideas or companies.

Attitudinal scaling

A moderation technique in which participants are instructed to conceptualize the product or service on a two-dimensional scale, such as price and quality. The goal is to better understand the participants' feelings about the product or service.

Attribute

A word or phrase used to describe the idea, product or object being evaluated.

Audio SAQ

Self-administered surveying in which the respondent listens to the questions over headphones. Responses are usually recorded on a paper questionnaire. When the respondent uses a computer-based questionnaire to record answers it is known as ACASI (audio computer-aided self-administered interviewing).

Audit

This word has two (2) definitions in the marketing research industry. The first is often referred to as a Store Audit. This is a method used to determine the number of units of a product sold in stores. It is the counting of units of specific products on the shelves in a store, along with knowledge of the number of products ordered and stocked. The second definition is often referred to as a Project Audit. This is the act of visiting a project site to ensure all specifications are being met and procedures are being followed.

Audit

The examination and verification of the sale of a product. A method for measuring sales in a store by counting beginning inventory, adding new shipments, and subtracting ending inventory. Also used to determine inventory lost to theft.

Autocorrelation

The problem of interdependence among successive values of the disturbance term. The problem with autocorrelation concerns the variance of our estimator.

Automatic interaction detection Program

for segmenting a list from a heterogeneous to a homogeneous market.

Awareness

The proportion of people who are familiar with a product, brand name or trademark.

Awareness (Recall)

A measure of a respondent’s knowledge of a particular product, company, service or commercial. Categories of awareness or recall often employed in marketing research include “top of mind awareness,” “unaided awareness,” and “aided awareness.”

B

Baby boom

The large generation of Americans born after World War II. Usually defined as those born between 1946 and 1964.

Baby boomlet

The children of the baby boom which resulted in a peak in births between 1977 and the present.

Baby bust

Generation between 1965 and 1976, when birth rates dropped rapidly and remained low. Often called generation X.

Back room

The room from which client personnel observe and listen to focus group proceedings through a one-way mirror. Also called the observation room or viewing room.

Balanced incomplete block (BIB)

An experimental design procedure for rotating a large number of products or items in a test. Balanced scales Scales with the same number of positive and negative categories.

Banner

The column headings, or cross-tab breaks, that run horizontally across the top of a computer table.

Base

The required number of interviews requested to be completed.

Base

The number on which the percentages in a table are calculated.

Baseline market segmentation study

The first market segmentation study conducted by an organization.

Basic research

Research aimed at expanding knowledge rather than solving a specific, pragmatic problem.

Bayesian statistics

Statistics which incorporate prior knowledge and accumulated experience into probability calculations.

Before and after with a control group

Random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups with pre-measurement of both groups.

Behavioral component of attitude

An individual's intentions to act based on attitudes about an object.

Bench Mark

A study conducted to obtain a snapshot or reading of current conditions prior to some change in market conditions or the introduction of some test conditions. These results are then used as a standard for comparison. Often used to refer to the first study in a series of like studies to be conducted over time at some regular interval.

Benchmark

A control source against which you compare the area you're studying. For example, you may compare the results of a study in one state to the results of the nation as a whole.

Bernoulli response variables

Also known as dichotomous or binary variables. Each element is one of two possibilities such as yes/no or on/off.

Bias

A systematic tendency of a sample to misrepresent the population. Biases may be caused by improper representation of the population in the sample, interviewing techniques, wording of questions, data entry, etc.

Biased Questions

Questions which are phrased or expressed in such a way that they influence the respondent’s opinion. They may provide information which leads the respondent to consider the subject in a specific way. Bias may be introduced through verbal or facial expressions, body language, or by paraphrasing questions.

Biased Responses

An untrue statement of an opinion or attitude given by the respondent. This biased or untrue reporting can be conscious or unconscious.

Biased Sample

A sample that is not representative of the Universe of the targeted audience.

Bid

Estimated costs associated with compliance to specifications.

Bimodal

A distribution in which the frequency curve has two peaks. A single peak is called a mode.

Binomial experiment

An experiment that consists of repeatedly drawing independently from Bernoulli population; the sequence of Bernoulli trials.

Bipolar scale

A scale with two negative, opposite end points and a midpoint representing the ideal situation. Examples: comfortable/uncomfortable, soft/hard, too spicy/too bland.

Birth rate

Number of births a year per 1,000 of population.

Bivariate data set

Data set in which two measurements (variables) have been made on each experimental unit or respondent.

Bivariate regression analysis

Analysis of the strength of the linear relationship between two variables, the independent variable and the dependent variable.

Bivariate techniques

Statistical methods of analyzing the relationship between two variables.

Blind Test

A technique used to evaluate a package or product without benefit or influence of the brand name.

Block numbering area (BNA)

Statistical subdivisions within non-metropolitan counties for grouping and numbering.

Blocked calls

Calls that receive busy signals.

Blocks Census areas

usually equivalent to city blocks.

Boundary

The border around a market area that is being studied.

Boundary files

Geographic features such as streets, railroads, blocks, described in a manner that is understandable to a computer.

Box plot

A graphical tool used to picture the data and possible outliers in the data.

Brand associations

Components of brand image, usually (but not always) assessed by qualitative research method.

Brand equity

The level of awareness and consumer goodwill generated by a company's brands and/or products.

Brand Share

The percentage of a specific product or service sold from among the total products or services sold in a single product/service category. These percentages are typically based on the dollars represented by the sale of the product or service.

Brand/Brand Name

A product name, usually other than that of the manufacturer or company.

Briefing

A training session, prior to starting work on a study/survey, in which all of the survey specifications, questionnaire parts, and details of the interview are reviewed, explained, and clarified for all interviewers assigned to the project. This is generally followed by practice interviews being administered by one interviewer to another.

Briefing

A meeting in which a client and researcher discuss the client's information needs so that the most appropriate research methodology can be recommended.

Buying intent

A scale used to measure the likelihood that the respondent will purchase a product.

(BZ) Busy

The accepted abbreviation for indicating a busy signal when dialing on a phone survey.

C

CAC

Consumer Advocacy Council

Call record sheet

Interviewer log which lists the number and results of a contact.

Callback

An attempt to reach a person who could not be reached on the first try or a follow-up or after-use interview.

Callback (CB)

Refers to interviewing a specific person following a product usage or refers to attempts, after the first attempt, to contact potential respondents who were not previously available for interview.

CAPI

The industry acronym for Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing.

CAPI (computer-aided personal interviewing)

Interviewer-administered surveying using a computer-based questionnaire

Cartoon tests

Tests in which the respondent fills in the dialogue for a character in a cartoon.

CASI (computer-aided self-administered interviewing)

Self-administered surveying using a computer-based questionnaire.

CASRO

Council of American Survey Research Organizations

Cathode-ray tube (CRT)

A computer terminal with a keyboard and monitor. Used in research to display questions and enter responses directly into the computer for tabulating.

CATI

The industry acronym for Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing.

CATI (computer-aided telephone interviewing)

Interviewer-administered telephone surveying using a computer-based questionnaire

Causal research

Study examining whether one variable causes or determines the value of another.

Causation

The inference that a change in one variable is responsible for an observed change in another variable.

CCENSPAC

Computer program developed by the Census Bureau for the 1980 census.

Cell

A term used when referring to a subsample in a study. In a paired comparison product test, one subsample (or cell of people) tests Product A first and then Product B, while the other subsample (cell) tests the two products in reverse order. These subsamples may be referred to as Cell A and Cell B. It can also refer to geographic areas, North vs. South; demographics, old vs. young, and so forth.

Cell size

Smallest unit or segment quantity of an individual variant within a test program.

Census

Generally refers to a complete canvas of the population being studied.

Census

A sample consisting of the entire population.

Census areas

Areas defined by the U.S. Census Bureau including four census regions and nine census divisions.

Census divisions

The nine census divisions (grouping of states) are: 1. Pacific: Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, Washington 2. Mountain: Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming 3. West North Central: Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota 4. East North Central: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin 5. West South Central: Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas 6. East South Central: Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee 7. South Atlantic: West Virginia, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Washington, DC 8. Middle Atlantic: New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island 9. New England: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont.

Census regions

The four census regions (groupings of states) are: 1. West: Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada 2. Midwest: North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan 3. South: Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Washington, DC, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Delaware, and Tennessee 4. Northeast: Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine.

Census tract

Area within a ZIP code group denoting households with uniform social and economic characteristics. Tracts generally have between 2,500 and 8,000 residents.

Census undercount

The percent of Americans who did not answer the census.

Central limit theorem

A distribution of a large number of sample means or sample proportions will approximate a normal distribution regardless of the actual distribution of the population from which they were drawn.

Central Location Test (CLT)

A term used to describe a study conducted at a selected test site or sites in an area. The interviewing method is usually in person and done oneonone or in groups.

Central-location study

A survey conducted at a conveniently located site to which respondents come to be interviewed.

Centroid

Geographic points marking the approximate centers of populations of the 260,000 block groups and enumeration districts in the U.S.

Check List

A list of items to be examined or things to be done. For ex-ample, a supervisor may receive a check list with the materials for a job listing the supplies enclosed. A questionnaire may contain a list of items to be checked off by the respondent or the interviewer during the interview.

Chi-square

A test of statistical significance which tests one measure of how well your model of expected distribution fits the observed distribution.

Choropleth maps

Computer generated maps that represent values with shading.

Clarifying

A follow-up technique for getting complete responses to open-ended questions by asking respondents to explain general terms in their answers. Also see probing.

Clarifying or Clarification

A technique used by an interviewer where the interviewer repeats an unclear phrase or word from the respondent's previous statement and then encourages the respondent to expand the answer to make their answer more clear.

Classification Questions

Survey questions designed to describe respondents in terms of demographics such as age, income, occupation, etc. Sometimes these questions are called “control questions” or “background questions.”

Client

Anyone who purchases the services of another. In marketing research, the client typically funds and uses the research data, and may be a full-service research company, an advertising agency, a manufacturer, a newspaper or another data collection company.

Clinical focus groups

Focus groups that explore subconscious motivation.

Closed-end question

Questions that ask the respondent to choose from a limited number of pre-listed answers.

Closed-End Questions

These questions have the possible answers printed on the questionnaire. The interviewer is required merely to indicate the respondent’s answer from the possible choices. 

Cluster

A category assigned to a neighborhood based on the assumption that the households share certain demographic, social, and economic characteristics.

Cluster analysis

A multivariate statistical classification technique for discovering whether the individuals of a population fall into different groups by making quantitative comparisons of multiple characteristics. The differences within any group should be less than the differences between groups. Often used for consumer segmentation and brand positioning.

Cluster sampling

Consists of selecting clusters of units in a population and then performing a census on each cluster. The selection of clusters could be based on some desired feature of the population or could be a random sample of clusters in the population.

CMOR

Council for Marketing and Opinion Research

CMSA (consolidated metropolitan statistical area)

A cluster of primary metropolitan statistical areas (PMSA), such as Minneapolis-St. Paul. CMSA markets are subdivided into MSAs.

Coding

Combining similar answers and assigning a numeric code so they may be processed by a computer. Usually done by a staff of people called Coders working from a code sheet of answers with their assigned code numbers.

Coding

The process of translating responses to questions into numerical form for data processing.

Coefficient of determination

The percent of the variability in the dependent variable explained by the independent variable.

Cognitive component of attitudes

An individual's knowledge and beliefs about an object.

Cognitive dissonance

Dissonance arises after a major purchase (e.g., a car) when alternatives are recommended and/or dislikes emerge with the choice. To eliminate the discomfort of dissonance, the consumer will seek to rationalize the original choice, in other words, find positive advantages and ignore the negative.

Cohort

A group of individuals having a statistical factor (age, race etc.) in common in a demographic study.

Cohort

measures Analysis of the activity of a cohort over an extended time period.

Collinearity

The correlation of independent variables with each other. Can bias estimates of regression coefficients.

Comparative scales

A judgment comparing one object, concept or person against another on a scale.

Complement of event A

The collection of all simple events not in Event A.

Completion rate

The percent of qualified respondents completing an interview or study.

Completion Rate (Completes Per Hour - CPH)

The number of interviews completed per hour of interviewing. Factors influencing completion rate are accuracy of sample, study incidence, interview length, screener length and cooperation rate (i.e. how many qualified respondents will actually complete the survey).

Completions

Questionnaires that are completed through a pre-determined question sequence and are included in the final data set for the study.

Concentric circle

The shape of a geometric study area, sometimes referred to as a ring.

Concept description

A brief description of a new product or service.

Concept Statement

A brief written description of a new product or service idea.

Concept Test

A test of consumer reaction to a description of a product or service rather than to the product or service itself

Conceptual mapping

A moderation technique in which participants are asked to place the names of products or services on a grid. How they group the items on the diagram is used to stimulate discussion.

Conclusions

The outcome or result; the section of the final report that contains the interpretation of the data in light of the research objectives. See also executive summary.

Concomitant variation

The degree to which a cause and effect occur or vary together.

Concurrent validity

The degree to which a variable, measured at the same point in time as the variable of interest, can be predicted by the measurement instrument.

Conditional probability

The probability of a given event when additional information about that event is known. For example, the probability of rolling a one on the toss of a die when we are given the additional information that the roll landed on an odd number.

Confidence intervals

The range around a survey result for which there is a high statistical probability that it contains the true population parameter.

Confidence level

The probability that a particular confidence interval will include the true population value.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality refers to the act of not divulging two types of information in a research study. First, confidentiality is maintained when study information such as client name, brand name, purpose of the research, concepts and/or pro-ducts (except as directed by the study instructions) is only provided to those who have a need to know. Confidentiality also refers to maintaining the privacy of any information collected from or about any individual respondent.

Confounded

An independent variable and an extraneous variable are confounded when their effects on the dependent variable cannot be distinguished from each other. Often a comparative study using a control group is used to avoid confounding variables.

Conjoint analysis

A multivariate technique used to quantify the value that people associate with different levels of product/service attributes. Respondents trade product attributes against each other to establish product (brand) preference and the relative importance of attributes. Based on utility theory and consumer rationality. Better for functional than fashionable brands.

Conjoint association

A moderation technique in which participants are asked to choose between two hypothetical products or services, each of which has different attributes. The objective is to stimulate discussion about the various attributes in order to gain insight into the relative value of each.

Constant sum scales

Scales that ask the respondent to divide a given number of points, typically 100, among two or more attributes based on their importance to the individual

Constitutive definition

Defines a concept with other concepts and constructs, establishing boundaries for the construct under study and stating the central idea or concept under study.

Construct

The working hypothesis or concept.

Construct validity

The degree to which a measurement instrument represents, via the underlying theory, the observed phenomenon to the construct.

Consumer

The ultimate user who purchases a product or service to satisfy their needs.

Consumer drawings

Respondents draw what they are feeling or how they perceive an object.

Consumer expenditure

The amount consumers spend on goods and services.

Consumer Expenditure Survey (CEX)

Data gathered in an ongoing survey by the Bureau of Labor Statistics on the expenditures of consumers.

Consumer orientation

Identification of and focus on the individuals or firms most likely to buy a product or service.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

Compares the current cost of purchasing a fixed set of goods and services with the cost of the same set at a specific base year. The resulting measures can be compared over time.

Consumer unit

All related members of a particular household; a person living alone or sharing a household with others, who is financially independent; two or more persons living together who pool their incomes to make joint purchases.

Contact Interviewers

interaction with a potential respondent to determine eligibility for participation.

Contamination

The inclusion of an individual or group of respondents in a test group who do not represent the population.

Content analysis

A technique used to study written material (usually advertising copy) by breaking it into meaningful units, using carefully applied rules.

Continuous variable

A quantitative variable that can assume an infinite number of values associated with the numbers on a line interval. Normally continuous variables are the result of some measurement process. Grade point average is a continuous variable because it can assume any value between 0.0 and 4.0.

Controlled substitutions

Substituting a unit of sample or respondent with another (drawn in accordance with the selection parameters of the individual being replaced).

Convenience sample

A sampling procedure that leaves the selection of respondents totally to the interviewers, with no quotas or qualifications imposed. It consists of those units of the population that are easily accessible.

Convergent validity

The degree of association among different measurement instruments that purport to measure the same concept.

Co-op payment

The payment provided to participants as an incentive to come to the focus groups or answer surveys. The amount varies dramatically, based on the difficulty of recruiting the participants. Also called the honorarium or incentive.

Cooperation Fee (Co-op)

Money paid to stores, respondents, etc. for cooperation on audits, focus groups, etc. Also called an incentive.

Cooperation Rate

The percent of all qualified respondents who agree to complete an interview. The cooperation rate is impacted by length of interview, subject matter and type of person being interviewed.

Copy Testing

Method of determining the degree of understanding, impact, awareness and believability that an ad may generate. Respondent is shown the ad, then questioned about his/her opinions.

Corporate marketing research department

Oversees and/or conducts research to support the firm's present or future marketing efforts. Correlation analysis Analysis of the degree to which changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.

CPI (Cost Per Interview)

This cost is determined by dividing the number of completed interviews into the total budget for a project.

Criterion variables

The variables being predicted or explained in a study. Also known as the dependent variable. Criterion-related validity The degree to which a measurement instrument can predict a variable that is designated a criterion.

Cross-elasticity

The extent to which products are substitutes for one another. Marketers use differentiation and quality to seek to minimize cross-elasticity and thus it could be seen as part of brand equity or marketing effectiveness. See also elasticity.

Cross-Tab (X-Tab)/ Cross-Tabulation

A table which shows the frequency and/or percentage of respondents, who gave various answers to a question in the survey, and which simultaneously shows these answers for various sub-groups of respondents.

Crosstabulation

Examination of the responses to one question relative to responses to one or more other questions.

Current Population Survey (CPS)

The survey conducted by the Census Bureau which monitors changes between the decennial censuses. Conducted monthly to 60,000 households.

Custom marketing research

Customized marketing research to address specific projects for corporate clients.

Customer satisfaction research

Research conducted to measure overall satisfaction with a product or service and satisfaction with specific elements of the product or service. 

D

Data

The term frequently used to describe the contents of surveys or polls. A group of facts or statistics.

Data

The collection of observations.

Data Collection

The gathering of information (figures, words or responses) that describe some situation from which conclusions can be drawn. The gathering of information from administered questionnaires.

Data Collection Company

The enterprise or agency that supplies trained interviewers for clients and receives payment for services delivered. The service is responsible for hiring and training of interviewers, executing a client's job exactly as specified, editing and validating each interviewer's completed assignment. Services can operate with interviewers who work exclusively for them or interviewers who work with them as well as other services in the area. Also known as a field service or interviewing service.

Data Collection Instrument

Any device used to gather information from a respondent, for example, questionnaires, computers, tape recorders, or video tape machines.

Data Processing

The counting and tabulating of raw information (i.e., Data) into table form suitable for future use. This term is usually associated with computer tabulations.

Data processing

Organization of data for the purpose of producing desired information; involves recording, classifying, sorting, summarizing, calculating, disseminating and storing data.

Data User News

A monthly newsletter issued by the U.S. Census Bureau.

Database management software

Computer programs in which data are captured on the computer, updated, maintained and organized for effective use and manipulation of data.

Day-after recall

An advertising testing technique that measures the proportion of people recalling seeing a TV commercial within 24 hours of its airing.

Daytime population

The population of an area during the daytime, which is usually far different from the residential population measured by the census.

Deadline

The date when an assignment must be completed.

Debriefing

An in-depth conversation with interviewers at the conclusion of a study. The interviewer plays back his/her impressions of the respondent's feelings about specific questions. This technique is often used immediately after a pre-test of a questionnaire. The information provides the researcher with insights necessary to revise or refine the final questionnaire and/or future studies.

Decennial census

The census that is conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau every 10 years in the first year of the decade.

Delphi technique

Method of expert judgment without adequate hard data, e.g., long-term forecasting. Stage I is to poll experts, anonymously and separately. In Stage 2 the results are consolidated and fed back to the experts as a group. Stage 3 polls them individually again, in the light of peer group opinion. In theory, the process continues until consensus arrives.

Demographics

Description of the vital statistics or objective and quantifiable characteristics of an audience or population. Demographic designators include age, marital status, income, family size, occupation, and personal or household characteristics such as age, sex, income, or educational level.

Demographics (Demos):

Demographics pertain to vital statistics, such as age, in-come, education and other personal characteristics of the respondent. 

Demography

A social science concerned with the size, distribution, structure, and change of populations.

Density

A measure that is computed by dividing the total population of a geographic unit by its land area measured in square miles or square kilometers.

Dependent variable

A symbol or concept expected to be explained or caused by the independent variable. It is the variable measured on each subject to determine whether its value is affected by the independent variable. Also known as criterion variable.

Depth interview

One-on-one interviews that probe and elicit detailed answers to questions, often using nondirective techniques to uncover hidden motivations.

Descriptive function

The gathering and presentation of statements of facts.

Descriptive studies

These studies answer the questions who, what, when, where, how.

Design control

Use of the experimental design to control extraneous causal factors.

Diad

This is an-depth interview involving two people, the interviewer and the respondent. Also known as a one-on-one.

Diagnostic function

The explanation of data or actions.

Diary

A log, where information is recorded relating to respondent's experiences with a subject or product. Diaries can also be a record of regular purchases or viewing habits. Often given to respondents when they receive a product to use at home.

Diary panel

A survey in which the same respondents keep a diary of what they watch, listen to, or buy, etc., over specified period of time.

Dichotomous questions

Questions that ask the respondents to choose between two answers.

Dig

See Probe/Probing.

Digitizing

The process of assigning latitude and longitude coordinates for each twist and turn of a market area that is to be studied.

Direct computer interviewing

Consumers are intercepted in a mall or other central location and interviewed by a computer that asks questions and accepts responses.

Directory database

Data available through directories or indexes of directory-type data.

Disappointment score

The proportion of respondents in a product test who indicate, after trying the product, that they would not buy it.

Disc (Disconnect)

The accepted abbreviation to indicate that a phone number has been disconnected, usually noted on the dialing report by the interviewer.

Discrete variable

A quantitative variable that can assume a finite or at most a countable number of values such as the number of children in a family.

Discretionary income

The amount of money people have for spending after taxes and necessities are paid for. Also known as disposable income.

Discriminant analysis

A multivariate technique for analyzing the predictive value of a set of independent variables. Discriminant coefficient Estimate of the discriminatory power of a particular independent variable.

Discriminant score

The basis for predicting to which group a particular object or individual belongs.

Discriminant validity

The lack of association among constructs that are supposed to be different.

Discussion guide

A written outline of topics to cover during a focus group discussion. See also moderator guide.

Discussion question

A question which has no pre-listed answers and thus allows the respondent to answer in his/her own words. Also known as open-ended question.

Disguised observation

The process of monitoring people, objects, or occurrences that do not know they are being watched.

Disk-by-mail (DBM)

Self-administered surveying using a computer-based questionnaire which is mailed to participants.

Display/Concept Board

Provided by the client to help the respondent picture or understand the product/ideas under discussion.

Disposable income

The income available to persons for spending or saving after taxes have been deducted. Also known as discretionary income.

Disposition

The result of an attempt to reach or contact a potential respondent.

Disproportional or optimal allocation

Sampling in which the number of elements taken from a given stratum is proportional to the relative size of the stratum and the standard deviation of the characteristic under consideration.

Distribution Check

A check and recording of the availability of specific items in stores. 

Distribution check

A study measuring the number of stores carrying specified products, along with the number of facings, special displays, and prices of the products.

DK (Don't Know)

The abbreviation recorded when a respondent lacks the knowledge to provide an answer to a question.

DMA (Designated Marketing Area)

A television market, as defined by NPD/Nielsen, a firm which measures TV audiences.

Door-to-door interviewing

Consumers are interviewed face to face in their homes.'

Door-to-Door Survey

Interviews conducted in pre-selected areas that involve knocking on the doors of homes to find qualified respondents.

Double jeopardy

The marketing problem in which smaller brands are bought both less frequently and by fewer people.

Double sampling

Data is collected through an inexpensive sampling technique for a sample larger than the final desired sample size. A subsample of this group is then selected and sampled - usually with a more expensive technique.

Duplicate number validation

A service in the focus group industry in which the names and telephone numbers of people recruited for groups are submitted to a central screening organization in advance of the groups for the purpose of screening out people who have recently participated in any session or are involved in focus groups more frequently than is desired.

Dyad

A qualitative research methodology in which an interviewer works with two participants at once. This technique is particularly appropriate for products and services for which two persons are relatively equal partners in making a purchase decision.

E

Editing

The process of examining questionnaires to insure that all the questions have been answered properly and that all written verbatim responses are complete, meaningful and legible.

Editing

The process of ascertaining that questionnaires were filled out properly, completely and accurately.

Efficiency

The degree to which the sample represents the population. See also precision.

Elasticity

Measures the extent volume shifts in response to a shift in the variable under consideration.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A machine that measures the rhythmic fluctuations in electrical potential of the brain.

Electronic data processing (EDP) systems

Information systems that manipulate raw data with little intrinsic meaning to reflect transactional relationships, such as declarative and summary reports.

Element sampling

A procedure in which each unit of a population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Eligible Respondent

A person who meets certain criteria set for a particular study and thus qualifies to be included in the study. Respondents may be qualified on such characteristics as age, income, brand used, etc.

Enumeration districts (EDs)

Census enumeration areas, averaging around 500 inhabitants.

Epsem sample

An Epsem (equal probability of selection method) sample is one in which the population elements have equal and non-zero probabilities of selection.

Equivalent form reliability

The ability to produce similar results using two instruments as similar as possible to measure the same object.

Error checking routines

Computer programs that accept instructions from the user to check for logical errors in the data.

Error sum of squares

The variation not explained by the regression.

ESOMAR

European Society of Opinion and Marketing Research

E-spread

The distance between the first and seventh sample eighths.

Estimate

A numerical value obtained from a statistical sample and assigned to the population parameter.

Evaluate research

Research to determine the effectiveness and efficiency of specific programs.

Event (simple)

Any subset of a sample is called an event. Those subsets containing a single outcome are called simple events. In rolling a die the event might be that an even number is rolled. There are six simple events 1,2,3,4,5,6.

Exchange

The first three digits of a phone number. Also known as a prefix. It represents the town, community or neighborhood in which a telephone number is located.

Executive interviewing

The business equivalent of door-to-door interviewing.

Executive or Business-to-Business Interviews

Interviews that involve talking with business men and women in companies of all sizes.

Executive Summary

See Management Report

Executive summary

The portion of a research report that explains why the research was done, what was found and what those findings mean, and what action, if any, management should undertake. See also conclusion.

Exhibit

Anything shown to respondents during an interview. Examples: a print advertisement, a card listing income categories. Also known as external stimuli.

Exhibits/Exhibit Cards

Printed cards, pictures, statements, actual products or advertisements given or shown to a respondent during the course of an interview, and usually relating to specific questions within the questionnaire. These aid the respondent in answering the question.

Expected value

The mean of a probability distribution. It is the value of the probability distribution we would expect in the long run.

Experiencing focus groups

Focus groups that enable a client to observe and listen to how consumers think and feel about products and services.

Experiment

The process of making an observation or taking a measurement.

Experimental design

A test in which the researcher has control over one or more independent variables and manipulates them.

Experimental effect

The effect of the treatment variable on the dependent variable.

Experimental unit

The basic element on which the experiment is conducted. Also called a subject, unit, respondent, participant or unit of analysis.

Exploratory focus groups

Focus groups that aid in the precise definition of the problem, in pilot testing, or in generating hypotheses for testing or concepts for further research.

Exploratory Research

See Qualitative Research

Exploratory research

Preliminary research to clarify the exact nature of the problem to be solved. Exponential smoothing Any set of data recorded in time intervals. Also called time series analysis.

Expressive drawing

A moderation technique in which participants are asked to express their reaction to a product or service by drawing a picture.

External stimuli

Objects that are introduced into a focus group to generate reactions from the participants. Examples include concept boards, product prototypes, and rough and finished advertising. Also known as an exhibit.

External validity

The extent to which causal relationships measured in an experiment can be generalized to outside persons, settings and times.

F

Face validity

The intuitive test of whether a measurement seems to measure what it is suppose to measure.

Factor

A variable that is controlled or manipulated by the researcher. May also be known as the independent variable or factor.

Factor analysis

Procedure for data simplification through reducing the many rating scales (or set of variables) used by the researcher to a smaller set of factors or composite variables by identifying dimensions underlying the data.

Factor loadings

The correlation between each factor score and each of the original variables.

False accuracy

An unwarranted illusion of accuracy provided by details, such as statistics quoted to two decimal places.

Family

As defined by The Bureau of the Census, two or more persons who are related by birth, marriage, or adoption and who live together as one household. Families do not include one-person households or those having two or more unrelated individuals.

Female Head-of-Household (FHH):

The woman most responsible for maintaining the household. May or may not be the primary wage earner.

Fertility rate

General fertility rate is the number of births a year per 1,000 women aged 15 to 44. Total fertility rate is the number of live births per 1,000 women in their lifetime

Field

The physical location where the interviewing takes place.

Field Director

The person assigned to implement the design of a survey through data collection companies. He/she is generally responsible for selecting the data collection companies and preparing specific study instructions for the interviewers and supervisors.

Field experiments

Tests conducted outside the laboratory in an actual market environment. Field management companies Firms that provide support services such as questionnaire formatting screener writing, and data collection to full-service research companies.

Field Service

See Data Collection Company

Field service

Collection of survey data.

Field Supervisor

The person responsible for the selection, hiring and training of interviewers. He/she is responsible for the data collection phase of the survey according to instructions.

Final report

The document that the researcher develops at the conclusion of the research project. Its length varies, but a typical final report includes several sections: a summary of the methodology used, a review of the key findings, and the conclusions or interpretations of what the findings mean in light of the research objectives. Some final reports also contain a recommendations section containing suggestions for the client's next steps based on the conclusions of the research.

Findings

The portion of the final report wherein the facts from the research are summarized. The findings section does not interpret the information but reports the findings on which the interpretation will be based.

Finite population correction factor (FPC)

An adjustment to the required sample size that is made in those cases in which the sample is expected to be equal to 5 percent or more of the total population.

Fixed field

A way of laying out or formatting list information in a computer file that puts every piece of data in a specific position relative to every other piece of data. If a piece of data is missing from an individual record, that space is not filled. Any piece of data exceeding its assigned space limitation must be abbreviated or contracted.

Fixed personality association

A projective moderation technique in which participants are shown pictures of people, places or things and asked to interpret them in regard to the topic. Fixed personality associations use the same pictures over an extended period of time rather than varying them so that norms are created that may apply to a large number of sessions.

Focus group

A qualitative market research technique in which a group of participants (approx. 10) of common demographics, attitudes, or purchase patterns are led through a discussion of a particular topic by a trained moderator.

Focus group facility

Facility consisting of conference or living room settings and an observation room connected to each other by a one-way mirror. In addition, a facility normally provides a variety of services such as recruiting the participants, providing food, procuring competitive product samples and videotaping the sessions.

Focus group moderator

The person hired by the client to lead the focus group.

Focus Group/Interview (FGI)

An unstructured interviewing technique where a small group (8 to 10) of eligible respondents are invited to participate in a discussion about a particular topic. A trained moderator guides the discussion of the respondent group. A type of qualitative research.

Forecast

An estimate, based on assumptions about future trends in births, deaths and migration, or of a demographic characteristic such as population or number of households. Forecasts and projections are terms that are often used interchangeably.

Frame error

Error resulting from an inaccurate or incomplete sample frame.

Frequency

The number of times a specific condition exists. This is usually recorded by number of times per day, per week or per month.

Frequency

A measure of how often an event occurs; a count of the number of subjects falling in the different categories.

Fresh participants

Focus group participants who have never participated in a session previously, or not for several years.

F-test

Test of the probability that a particular calculated value could have been due to chance.

Full group

A focus group with eight to 10 participants. A less-than-full group is normally referred to as a minigroup.

Full Service (F.S.) Research Company

A company hired by a manufacturer or service company to design and manage the implementation of a research project, as well as analyze and interpret the data. The full service company may collect the data themselves or hire a data collection company for this phase of a project.

Full text database

Index containing the full text of source documents, such as articles.

G

Galvanic skin response (GSR)

A change in the electrical resistance of the skin that is a physiochemical response to an emotional change.

Geocoding (or geographic encoding)

The process whereby addresses are segmented by county, MSA, postal route, etc., in order to compare them with information about the demographics and psychographics of those geographies. Geocoding is integral to demographically-enhanced mailing lists and cluster analysis.

Geodemographic segmentation system

A multivariate statistical classification technique for discovering whether the individuals of a population fall into different groups by making quantitative comparisons of multiple characteristics. The differences within any group should be less than the differences between groups. Often used for consumer segmentation and brand positioning. Often known as cluster analysis.

Geographic information system

A business tool for interpreting data that consists of a demographic database, digitized maps, a computer and software.

Geographics

Any method of subdividing a list based on geographic or political subdivisions

Geometric study area

A market site in the shape of a concentric circle or polygon that is to be analyzed.

Global focus groups

Focus groups conducted using satellite video technology in which participants are located in different places, normally in different countries. Also called video focus groups.

Graphic rating scales

Graphic continuums anchored by two extremes presented to respondents for evaluation of a concept or object.

Gratuity

See Cooperation (Co-op) Fee.

Grid

A chart that can be used to record responses to questions or track the progress of a project.

Grid

A graphic provided to focus group participants in conceptual mapping and attitudinal scaling exercises.

Grid test

A means of testing more than one variable at a time.

Gross income

The total amount of money people have before taxes and necessities are paid for.

Group dynamics

The interaction among people in a group. An effective moderator can enable group dynamics to promote helpful discussion by various techniques, as well as minimize the potentially negative effects of group dynamics.

Group interview

A qualitative research technique involving a discussion among eight to 10 respondents, led by a moderator. Also called focus groups, group discussions, panels, and group depth interviews.

Group quarters population

Residents of military barracks, college dormitories, prisons, long-term-care hospitals, boarding houses, nursing homes etc.

Growth rate

The total increase or decrease in a population during a given period divided by the average population in that period.

H

Hand Tab

The simplest type of tabulation possible; consists of a manual count of the answers to certain questions on the questionnaires.

Handout Cards

See Exhibits.

Hash Mark

A way of tallying or counting by accumulating identical lines into groups of five, i.e., 1111 1111. Each mark or line represents one respondent or item.

Head of household

A term no longer used by the U.S. Census Bureau (although often used in the research industry). The new term is householder. The householder is the person who completed the Census Questionnaire.

Head of Household (HH)

One person in a household is termed as the Head. The Head is usually the person who has primary decision-making responsibility for the household and lives in the dwelling. When two or more people share this responsibility, the client will specify which individual should be surveyed. It may be the person earning the greater income in the household. Survey assignments will generally specify male or female Head of Household to be interviewed. 

Hedonic scale

A scale for measuring general, overall opinion of a product.

Heteroscedasticity

In regression analysis the condition of nonconstant variance.

Histogram

A histogram is a graphical representation of the data.

History

Things that happen or outside variables that change between the beginning and end of an experiment. See also maturation.

Home Audit

A survey where an interviewer enters a respondent's home to take an actual inventory of particular products on hand in the house at the time of the interview.

Home Use Test (HUT)

The placement of a test product with the respondent to be used under in-home usage conditions over a specific time period. The test product may be identified or labeled as to what it is, or the product may be blind, only identified by a code letter or number. Respondents may be questioned before they are given the product to use. They are definitely questioned about their reactions to the product after their in-home use experience.

Homogeneous groups

Groups in which the units or individuals have extremely similar characteristics.

Homoscedasticity

In regression analysis it is the condition of constant variance.

Honorarium

The payment provided to focus group participants. The amount varies dramatically, based on the difficulty of recruiting the participants. Also called the co-op payment or incentive.

Host or Hostess

The person whose major responsibility is the comfort of clients, guests and respondents at a focus group or central location test

Hostess

The individual responsible for greeting the focus participants as they arrive at the facility and for preparing the room. The responsibilities of a hostess include providing food for the participants and the client observers, rescreening respondents when they arrive, preparing name tags, etc.

Household

All persons who occupy a housing unit.

Householder

In most cases, the person in whose name the home is owned or rented. Also called head of household. In some cases, the individual who was surveyed or interviewed. The U.S. Census Bureau defines the householder is the person who completed the Census Questionnaire.

Housing unit

A house, apartment, group of rooms, or a single room occupied as separate living quarters.

Humanistic inquiry

A research method in which the researcher is immersed in the system or group under study.

Hypothesis test of proportions

Test to determine whether the difference between proportions is greater than would be expected because of sampling error.

I

Immigration

Movement of people into a country from another country.

Incentive

See Cooperation (Co-op) Fee.

Incentive

The payment to participants for coming to a focus group. The amount varies dramatically, based on the difficulty of recruiting the participants. Also called honorarium or co-op payment.

Incidence

The frequency of something occurring in the population. It usually refers to persons and is stated as a percentage (i.e., the percentage of people in the U.S. who eat cereal for breakfast). In marketing and opinion research, incidence is a measure of the level of effort needed to reach qualified or eligible respondents.

Incidence

Any figure referring to the percentage of people in a category. Examples: incidence of users, incidence of people qualifying for a study.

Income

As defined by the Census Bureau income is wage or salary income; self-employment income; interest, dividend, or net rental income; Social Security income; public assistance income; all other income, which includes unemployment compensation, veterans' payment, pensions, alimony, etc.

Independent samples

Samples in which measurement of a variable in one population has no effect on the measurement of the variable in the other.

Independent variable

A variable that is controlled or manipulated by the researcher. See also predictor variables or factor.

In-depth Interview (IDI)

An interviewing approach which delves into the respondent's reactions to questions in an unstructured manner. In all in-depth interviews, a guide is essential, enabling the inter-viewer to direct the flow of conversation to relevant subjects. In many cases, the interviewer will be a trained focus group moderator. A type of qualitative research.

Industrial Survey

A marketing research study which focuses upon products and services utilized by businesses and manufacturing firms, conducted among respondents employed in such businesses (as opposed to a consumer survey).

In-house recruiting

The recruiting of focus group participants by people who are physically located within the facility.

Initial Refusal

This occurs when a respondent refuses to participate in a survey at the interviewers' initial introductory statement.

Instrument variation

Differences or changes in measurement instruments (e.g., interviews or observers) that explain differences in measurements.

Intelligent data entry

The logical checking of information being entered into a data entry device by that machine or one connected to it.

Interactive Interviewing

Asking questions and recording answers via computer

Intercept

A recruitment method in which an interviewer stops people in a mall or other public location and administers survey.

Intercept Interview

A term used to describe a study conducted in person with respondents who are approached or intercepted in high traffic locations such as grocery stores or shopping malls.

Internal consistency reliability

Ability to produce similar results using different samples to measure a phenomenon during the same time period.

Internal database

Database developed from data within the organization.

Internal validity

The extent to which competing explanations for the experimental results observed can be avoided.

Interrupted time-series design

Research in which the treatment interrupts ongoing repeated measurements.

Intersection

Is the event containing all simple events that are in both event A and event B. The concept can be extended to more than two events.

Interval

Taking a given number of units equally selected over the full population of study. The nth number interval is derived by dividing the total number of units by the sample number desired. Also known as nth selection.

Interval estimates

Inferences regarding the likelihood that a population value will fall within a certain range.

Interval scale

Ordinal scale with the additional property that the distance between observations is meaningful. An example would be the temperature. See ratio scale.

Interview

The exchange of information between the interviewer and the respondent. A questionnaire is the vehicle used for this exchange. The interviewer records the respondent's responses to a question or series of questions. The exchange can be in person or on the telephone; answers can be recorded on paper or via computer.

Interviewee

See Respondent

Interviewer

The person conducting the interviewing by asking questions.

Interviewer

The person responsible for recruiting participants for a focus group or the person administering a questionnaire.

Interviewer Bias

An influence on answers to questions caused by the presence, attitudes or actions of the person asking the questions.

Interviewer error

Error that results from conscious or unconscious bias in the interviewer's interaction with the respondent.

Interviewer's instructions

Written directions to the interviewer on how to conduct the interview.

Itemized rating scales

Scales in which the respondent selects an answer from a limited number of ordered categories.

J

Judgment sample

A sample containing certain types of respondents, who are selected on the basis of the judgment that their attitudes or behavior will be representative of the population.

K

Key verifying

Having two operators enter the same data to verify that entry is accurate.

Key Word Recording

A method used by interviewers to record answers to open-end questions. Rather than recording the answer verbatim, only key words and phrases are written down, not complete sentences. This technique requires the skill of a well-trained interviewer so that important or meaningful words are not left out.

Keypunch

Means of converting hard copy to machine readable form by punching holes in either cards or paper tape (rarely used anymore).

Kolmogorov-Smirnov test

Test of the goodness of fit between the observed distribution and the expected distribution using ordinal data.

Kurtosis

The kurtosis is a measure of peakedness. A negative kurtosis means the distribution is more flat and a positive kurtosis means the distribution is more peaked. A kurtosis of zero approximates a normal or bell-shaped distribution.

L

Labor force

All civilians who are working or actively looking for work, plus members of the Armed Forces stationed in the U.S.

Labor force participation rates

The ratio of the population working or looking for work in an age-sex category to the total population in the category.

Laboratory experiments

Experiments conducted in a controlled setting.

Laddering

A probing technique, used in one-on-ones and focus groups, designed to delve into the real reasons for participants' attitudes and behavior toward the topic. It is generally considered to be an intensive technique. The moderator seeks the reason behind each answer until he or she arrives at a basic human need such as ego or status.

Leg

See Cell

Lelly triads

Also known as repertory grids. used especially by advertising agencies to elicit consumer language for the products in question. Products (or whatever) are written or pictured on cards which are dealt three at a time. The respondent is invited to pick the odd one out and explain why it is odd. The language and key discriminators are noted.

Length of Interview

The actual number of minutes it takes to ask the questions and record the answers in a survey. This should include the time it takes to taste any products, review concepts, etc. Screening time should be shown separately so that accurate completion rates can be calculated.

Level of significance

Probability of making a Type I error.

Lifestyle research

Research that attempts to explain behavior by analyzing people's attitudes, hobbies, activities and opinions. Often associated with psychographic research.

Lifestyle selectivity

Selectivity based on lifestyle habits of segments of the population, e.g., hobbies, interests, ownership etc.

Likert scale

A scale in which the respondent specifies a level of agreement or disagreement with statements that express a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the concept under study. See also semantic differential.

Listed sample

A sample which contains only directory-listed telephone households.

Listed telephone households

Households which are listed in published telephone directories.

Logit model

A version of regression analysis using an S-shaped curve instead of a straight line. Used when responses are binary, e.g., yes/no, rather than continuous numbers.

Logo

A unique symbol, trademark or type style used to represent a company or brand name on packaging, in advertising, in promotional materials or other communications.

Long census form

The decennial census questionnaire that was answered by a sample of the population. Data from the long form are available only for large geographic areas because the Census Bureau protects the anonymity of all respondents.

Longitudinal study

A long-term survey based on repeated analysis of either the same sample (called a panel study) or new samples chosen at regular intervals.

M

Machine-readable data

Imprinted alpha-numeric data that can be read and converted to magnetic form by an optical character reader.

Mail Panel

A collection of respondents who have been recruited to participate in surveys conducted through the mail. The organization that has developed a mail panel generally has classification data about the household to allow the client to select a sample of respondents with whom to conduct a survey. Mail Panels can be local or national in scope.

Mail panels

A study in which participants are precontacted and screened, then periodically sent questionnaires.

Mail Survey

A survey conducted via mail. Respondents may, or may not, be recruited ahead of time to participate.

Male Head-of-Household (MHH)

The man most responsible for maintaining the household. May or may not be the primary wage earner.

Mall intercept interviewing

Shoppers are intercepted in public areas of malls and interviewed face-to-face.

Mall Intercepts

Interviews conducted in shopping malls by randomly selecting people from among those present to be screened. The main part of the interview can take place either on the mall floor or inside the offices of a data collection company located within the mall.

Management Report

A summary report of the survey data covering the highlights or key findings.

Mapping

The process by which a computer generates thematic maps that combine geography with demographic information and a company's sales data or other proprietary information.

MAPPing Mathematical Analysis of Perception and Preference.

See Perceptual MAPPing.

Margin of Error

The amount of sampling error one could expect to find, due to just chance, above or below the actual figure obtained in the survey results. See also: Sampling error.

Marginal

A computer-generated frequency count of the number of people giving each answer to all the questions in a questionnaire. Also called an 80-column dump. Often used to monitor entry of valid codes and correct use of skip patterns.

Market

Total of all individuals or organizations that represent potential buyers.

Market Research

A process used to define the size, location, and/or makeup of the market for a product or service.

Market segmentation

The process of dividing a total market into sub-groups of consumers who exhibit differing sensitivities to one or more marketing mix variables.

Market Share

See Brand Share.

Market

The geographic area or areas in which a research project takes place. A market may be a region of the country, a state, a county, a city or some portion of a city.

Marketing

The process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.

Marketing & Opinion Research

A process used by businesses to collect, analyze and interpret information used to make sound business decisions and successfully manage the business.

Marketing concept

The business philosophy that a company's effort should be adapted to the needs and wants of its customers.

Marketing information systems (MIS)

These systems create rather than simplify manipulated data, presenting data in a form useful to a variety of people within the organization.

Marketing mix

The unique blend of product pricing, promotion, offerings, and distribution designed to meet the needs of a specific group of customers.

Marketing research

The planning, collection, and analysis of data relevant to marketing decision making, and the communication of the results of this analysis to management.

Marketing strategy

Guiding the long-run use of the firm's resources based on its existing and projected capabilities and on projected changes in the external environment.

Markov model

Sets out in matrix form the probability that the user of each brand in a category will switch next time to each other brand. Mathematically sound and now measurable through retail scanners.

Maturation

Changes in subjects that take place during the experiment that are not related to the experiment but may affect their response to the experimental factor. See also history.

Maximum

The maximum is the maximum value of all the values in the distribution.

Mean

also called the Average, is the most common measure of central tendency. It is equal to the sum of the case values divided by the number of cases.

Mean square error

The square root of the sum of the standard error squared and the bias squared. A measure of the total error to be expected for a sample estimate.

Measure of location

A quantity that locates a particular position in the frequency distribution. An example is the mean, which is a measure of the center of the frequency distribution.

Measurement

Process of assigning numbers or labels to things in accordance with specific rules to represent quantities or qualities of attributes.

Measurement error

Error that results from a variation between the information being sought and the information actually obtained by the measurement process.

Media

This term refers to methods of message communication. Media is the plural of medium. Magazines, newspapers, radio, television and billboards are referred to as advertising media.

Media marketing areas

The two firms which measure TV audiences, Arbitron and NPD/Nielsen, have slightly different definitions of media marketing area (television market), based on sampling, etc. Arbitron's TV markets are called Areas of Dominant Influence (ADIs), while Nielsen's are Designated Market Areas, or DMAs.

Media Research

Research that is centered on issues of media selection and efficiency

Media Test

Research method that examines the impact of advertising through various media.

Median

The numerical observation that divides the distribution of observations in half. Sometimes referred to as the second quartile. The median, like the mean, is a measure of central tendency. It is the middle case if all the cases are sorted in numeric order. It is also the value that would occur at the 50th percentile.

Methodological log

A journal of detailed and time-sequenced notes on the investigative techniques used during a humanistic inquiry, with special attention to biases or distortions a given technique may have introduced.

Methodology

Procedure by which data is collected (i.e., mall intercept, telephone survey, focus group, etc.)

Methodology

The research procedures used; the section of the final report in which the researcher outlines the approach used in the research, including the method of recruiting participants, the types of questions used, and so on. Methodology can also mean the approach a moderator uses to conduct focus groups.

Metric scale

Identifies categories of the variable in which observations can be ranked from smallest to largest and the distance between variables is meaningful and the ratios of the observations are meaningful. Also known as ratio scale. Examples include weight, height, age, etc.

Microdata

Census records of individual respondents stripped of their identifying information. Census microdata are available as public-use microdata samples (PUMS).

Migration

Movement of residence from one political area to another.

Minigroup

A focus group that contains between four to six participants. More than six is normally considered a full group, and fewer than four is a triad or a dyad.

Minimum

The minimum is the minimum value of all the values in the distribution.

Mixed groups

A focus group that contains both males and females.

Mobility

Geographic movement involving a change of residence.

Mode

The most frequently occurring measurement. The peak of a frequency curve. The median, like the mean, is a measure of central tendency. It is the middle case if all the cases are sorted in numeric order. It is also the value that would occur at the 50th percentile.

Modeling

The formulation of mathematically-expressed variables to simulate a business decision environment. For example, a model could be formulated using demographics and a company's financial data to select new markets that have the same combination of factors that are present in currently successful markets.

Moderator

Someone who is the leader of a focus group discussion, in-depth interview, or other meeting. Often works from pre-determined outline of subjects to be covered.

Moderator guide

The outline that the moderator uses to lead the discussion in the focus group session. It is developed by the moderator on the basis of the briefings and identifies the topics that will be covered in a focus group session, and the approximate emphasis that will be given to each.

Monadic

Test in which a respondent evaluates only one product.

Monadic Evaluation

A study or part of a study in which the respondent evaluates only one stimulus on its own merits, rather than comparing it to other test stimuli. The stimulus can be a product, concept, advertisement, etc.

Monitor

A quality control measure which may involve observing, auditing and checking the interviewing for the purposes of ensuring required procedures are followed and to give feedback and instruction to the interviewers. Monitoring is one means of validating or giving assurance that data is collected from qualified respondents who are interviewed under prescribed conditions. Monitoring can be done in person for face-to-face interviews or by telephone for tele-phone interviews.

Mortality

Loss of test units or subjects during the course of an experiment. The problem is that those lost may be systematically different from those who stay.

MRA

Marketing Research Association

MRCBOK

Marketing Research Core Body of Knowledge

MRS

Marketing Research Society

MSA (Metropolitan Statistical Area)

A free-standing metropolitan area surrounded by non-metropolitan counties and not closely associated with other metropolitan areas. Each MSA is grouped by population size and coded using government FIP codes.

Multicollinearity

A problem that arises when at least one of the independent variables in a linear combination is in effect always a weighted sum of the values of the other independent variables. When this occurs, we are unable to separate its influence on the dependent variable from that of the others.

Multidimensional scaling (MDS)

Procedures designed to measure several dimensions of a concept or object. Similar to factor analysis but mathematically purer. Factor analysis uses regular ordinal arithmetic, e.g., 2+2 = 4, whereas MDS requires numbers just to increase monotonically, e.g., 2+2 > 2. Provides perceptual maps and works from rankings (A>B). See also perceptual MAPPing.

Multiple Answers

When more than one answer is acceptable for the same question.

Multiple Choice Questions

Respondents are offered a check list of responses to a question an are asked to choose one or more that seem appropriate. Commonly referred to as closed-end questions in marketing and opinion research.

Multiple choice questions

Questions that ask a respondent to choose from a list of more than two answers.

Multiple regression analysis

Statistical procedure that studies multiple independent variables simultaneously to identify a pattern or patterns. See also regression analysis.

Multiple time-series design

An interrupted time-series design with a control group.

Multivariate analysis

Any statistical procedure that simultaneously analyzes several measurements (variables).

Mutually exclusive

Events are said to be mutually exclusive if they have no intersection.

Mystery Shopper

A person sent into a business location to act in the role of a customer to evaluate business and/or employee performance. A type of observational research.

Mystery shoppers

People employed to pose as consumers and shop at the competitors and their own stores to compare prices, displays, etc.

N

N.A. (No Answer):

The accepted abbreviation to indicate no response to a question because the respondent refused to reply, the question did not apply, or it was skipped for some reason.

N.H. or N.A.H. (Not At Home/No One Home)

The accepted abbreviation to indicate the respondent is not at home, there is no answer to the doorbell, or the telephone.

Neural network

A computer program that mimics the function of the human brain. In marketing research, neural networks are used as data analysis tools. By harnessing a computer's ability to process millions of calculations quickly, neural networks can identify patterns, draw abstractions and uncover relationships in large amounts of data.

Nixie

Mailing piece returned to mailer by the Postal Service because of an incorrect or undeliverable name or address. The nixie rate varies widely depending on the source of the mailing list.

Nominal grouping session

Qualitative research method in which consumers, brought together in small groups, independently generate ideas about a subject and hence discuss the ideas.

Nominal scale

Identifies categories of the variable. Categories are called classes or levels. Examples: male/female, user/nonuser.

Nonbalanced scales

Scales weighted toward one end or the other.

Noncomparative

A judgment made without reference to another object, concept, or person.

Non-family household

A household comprised of a person living alone or with non-relatives, as defined by the Census Bureau.

Nonprobability sample

Subset of a population in which little or no attempt is made to ensure a representative cross section.

Non-random

Occurrences which do not have an equal probability of occurring; not mathematically predictable on the basis of the classical theory of probability.

Non-Response

See N.A.

Nonresponse bias

Error that results from a systematic difference between those who do and do not respond to the measurement instrument.

Nonsampling error

All the sources of bias or inaccuracy in a study besides sampling error. Examples: leading by the interviewer, recording/data entry errors.

Normal distribution

A continuous distribution that is bell shaped and symmetrical about the mean.

No-show

A focus group participant who agrees to come to a session and is confirmed the same day, but nonetheless does not come to the group. Facilities compensate for no-shows by overrecruiting for groups by two or three people.

Nth selection

Statistical means of taking a given number of names or units equally selected over the full population of study. The nth number interval is derived by dividing the total number of units by the sample number desired. Also known as interval.

Null hypothesis

The statement being tested in a test of significance.

Numeric database

Database containing original survey data on a wide variety of topics.

O

Objectives

The information to be developed from a study to serve the project's purpose.

Observation

The value that the variable assumes for a single unit of the sample.

Observation Check

See Distribution Check.

Observation research

Descriptive research that monitors respondents' actions without direct interaction. Sometimes called a quasi-experiment.

Observation room

The room from which client personnel observe and listen to focus group proceedings through a one-way mirror. Also called the back room or viewing room.

Observational Research

A means of collecting data through watching the situation of interest and recording behaviors, pertinent facts or actions.

Occupancy status

Housing unit classification as occupied or vacant.

OCR (optical character reader)

Automatic computer input process whereby the computer scanner is able to read printed characters and convert them to electronic data.

Omnibus panel

Study over time in which the sponsoring research company defines the audience to be surveyed and the intervals between studies. Numerous clients participate by submitting proprietary questions. Generally clients only receive results from their proprietary questions and general demographic questions.

Omnibus Survey

A survey which examines a number of unrelated topics or issues. This may be a shared expense study in which a number of different clients